Estimating the Risk of Future Reading Difficulties in Kindergarten Children

A Research-Based Model and Its Clinical Implementation

catts{at}ukans.edu

Purpose: Speech-language pathologists have the skills and knowledge needed to play an important role in the early identification of children who are at risk for reading difficulties. Whereas research has identified language and other factors that may be predictive of future reading problems, studies have not provided the statistical models and classification data needed for the implementation of early identification programs. In this paper, we report the results of a longitudinal study that examined kindergarten predictors of second-grade reading outcome.

Method: Six hundred and four children were given a battery of language, early literacy, and nonverbal cognitive measures in kindergarten as part of an epidemiologic study of language impairments in children. Follow-up testing of reading achievement was completed in second grade. Participants were divided into those children with and without reading difficulties.

Results: Findings indicated that five kindergarten variables (letter identification, sentence imitation, phonological awareness, rapid naming, and mother's education) uniquely predicted reading outcome in second grade.

Clinical Implications: A logistic regression formula and classification data based on these results are provided. Suggestions are offered concerning how this information could be used in an early identification and intervention program for children who are at risk for reading difficulties.

KEY WORDS: early identification, reading difficulties, reading disabilities, prevention, logistic regression

Submitted on May 24, 2000
Accepted on July 12, 2000

CiteULike    Connotea    Delicious    Digg    Facebook    Reddit    Technorati    Twitter    What's this?

This article has been cited by other articles:

				J. L. Preston, M. Hull, and M. L. Edwards Preschool Speech Error Patterns Predict Articulation and Phonological Awareness Outcomes in Children With Histories of Speech Sound Disorders Am J Speech Lang Pathol, May 1, 2013; 22(2): 173 - 184. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. K. Gilbert, D. L. Compton, D. Fuchs, and L. S. Fuchs Early Screening for Risk of Reading Disabilities: Recommendations for a Four-Step Screening System Assessment for Effective Intervention, December 1, 2012; 38(1): 6 - 14. [Abstract] [PDF]

				D. A. Kilpatrick Phonological Segmentation Assessment Is Not Enough: A Comparison of Three Phonological Awareness Tests With First and Second Graders Canadian Journal of School Psychology, June 1, 2012; 27(2): 150 - 165. [Abstract] [PDF]

				D. Fuchs, D. L. Compton, L. S. Fuchs, V. J. Bryant, C. L. Hamlett, and W. Lambert First-Grade Cognitive Abilities as Long-Term Predictors of Reading Comprehension and Disability Status J Learn Disabil, May 1, 2012; 45(3): 217 - 231. [Abstract] [PDF]

				G. C. Rost and K. K. McGregor Miranda Rights Comprehension in Young Adults With Specific Language Impairment Am J Speech Lang Pathol, May 1, 2012; 21(2): 101 - 108. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. J. Spencer, H. Goldstein, and R. Kaminski Teaching Vocabulary in Storybooks: Embedding Explicit Vocabulary Instruction for Young Children Young Exceptional Children, March 1, 2012; 15(1): 18 - 32. [PDF]

				C. S. Gosse, L. M. Hoffman, and M. A. Invernizzi Overlap in Speech-Language and Reading Services for Kindergartners and First Graders Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch, January 1, 2012; 43(1): 66 - 80. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. L. Compton, L. S. Fuchs, D. Fuchs, W. Lambert, and C. Hamlett The Cognitive and Academic Profiles of Reading and Mathematics Learning Disabilities J Learn Disabil, January 1, 2012; 45(1): 79 - 95. [Abstract] [PDF]

				M. J. Ritter and T. F. Saxon Classroom-Based Phonological Sensitivity Intervention (PSI) Using a Narrative Platform: An Experimental Study of First Graders At Risk for a Reading Disability Communication Disorders Quarterly, November 1, 2011; 33(1): 3 - 12. [Abstract] [PDF]

				J. A. Wolter, T. Self, and K. Apel Initial Mental Graphemic Representation Acquisition and Later Literacy Achievement in Children With Language Impairment: A Longitudinal Study J Learn Disabil, November 1, 2011; 44(6): 543 - 555. [Abstract] [PDF]

				M. Sittner Bridges and H. W. Catts The Use of a Dynamic Screening of Phonological Awareness to Predict Risk for Reading Disabilities in Kindergarten Children J Learn Disabil, July 1, 2011; 44(4): 330 - 338. [Abstract] [PDF]

				N. L. Niessen, K. Strattman, and R. Scudder The Influence of Three Emergent Literacy Skills on the Invented Spellings of 4-Year-Olds Communication Disorders Quarterly, February 1, 2011; 32(2): 93 - 102. [Abstract] [PDF]

				A. Anderson Linguistic specificity through literate language use in preschool-age children with specific language impairment and typical language Child Language Teaching and Therapy, February 1, 2011; 27(1): 109 - 123. [Abstract] [PDF]

				F. Hoeft, B. D. McCandliss, J. M. Black, A. Gantman, N. Zakerani, C. Hulme, H. Lyytinen, S. Whitfield-Gabrieli, G. H. Glover, A. L. Reiss, et al. Neural systems predicting long-term outcome in dyslexia PNAS, January 4, 2011; 108(1): 361 - 366. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. A. Fallon and L. A. Katz Providing Written Language Services in the Schools: The Time Is Now Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch, January 1, 2011; 42(1): 3 - 17. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. E. Bingham, K. M. Hall-Kenyon, and B. Culatta Systematic and Engaging Early Literacy: Examining the Effects of Paraeducator Implemented Early Literacy Instruction Communication Disorders Quarterly, November 1, 2010; 32(1): 38 - 49. [Abstract] [PDF]

				C. Elbro Dyslexia as Disability or Handicap: When Does Vocabulary Matter? J Learn Disabil, September 1, 2010; 43(5): 469 - 478. [Abstract] [PDF]

				T. P. Hogan A Short Report: Word-Level Phonological and Lexical Characteristics Interact to Influence Phoneme Awareness J Learn Disabil, July 1, 2010; 43(4): 346 - 356. [Abstract] [PDF]

				S. M. Adlof, H. W. Catts, and J. Lee Kindergarten Predictors of Second Versus Eighth Grade Reading Comprehension Impairments J Learn Disabil, July 1, 2010; 43(4): 332 - 345. [Abstract] [PDF]

				P. D. Liu, C. McBride-Chang, A. M.- Y. Wong, T. Tardif, S. F. Stokes, P. Fletcher, and Hua Shu Early Oral Language Markers of Poor Reading Performance in Hong Kong Chinese Children J Learn Disabil, July 1, 2010; 43(4): 322 - 331. [Abstract] [PDF]

				M. E. Hayiou-Thomas, N. Harlaar, P. S. Dale, and R. Plomin Preschool Speech, Language Skills, and Reading at 7, 9, and 10 Years: Etiology of the Relationship J Speech Lang Hear Res, April 1, 2010; 53(2): 311 - 332. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. A. Wolter and K. Apel Initial Acquisition of Mental Graphemic Representations in Children with Language Impairment J Speech Lang Hear Res, February 1, 2010; 53(1): 179 - 195. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C. J. Johnson, J. H. Beitchman, and E. B. Brownlie Twenty-Year Follow-Up of Children With and Without Speech-Language Impairments: Family, Educational, Occupational, and Quality of Life Outcomes Am J Speech Lang Pathol, February 1, 2010; 19(1): 51 - 65. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				B. B. Korth, A. C. Sharp, and B. Culatta Classroom Modeling of Supplemental Literacy Instruction: Influencing the Beliefs and Practices of Classroom Teachers Communication Disorders Quarterly, February 1, 2010; 31(2): 113 - 127. [Abstract] [PDF]

				K. Apel The Acquisition of Mental Orthographic Representations for Reading and Spelling Development Communication Disorders Quarterly, November 1, 2009; 31(1): 42 - 52. [Abstract] [PDF]

				D. F. Loeb, R. B. Gillam, L. Hoffman, J. Brandel, and J. Marquis The Effects of Fast ForWord Language on the Phonemic Awareness and Reading Skills of School-Age Children With Language Impairments and Poor Reading Skills Am J Speech Lang Pathol, November 1, 2009; 18(4): 376 - 387. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. A. Wolter, A. Wood, and K. W. D'zatko The Influence of Morphological Awareness on the Literacy Development of First-Grade Children Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch, July 1, 2009; 40(3): 286 - 298. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				P. L. Morgan, G. Farkas, and Qiong Wu Five-Year Growth Trajectories of Kindergarten Children With Learning Difficulties in Mathematics J Learn Disabil, July 1, 2009; 42(4): 306 - 321. [Abstract] [PDF]

				A. D. Koutsoftas, M. T. Harmon, and S. Gray The Effect of Tier 2 Intervention for Phonemic Awareness in a Response-to-Intervention Model in Low-Income Preschool Classrooms Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch, April 1, 2009; 40(2): 116 - 130. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				H. W. Catts, Y. Petscher, C. Schatschneider, M. Sittner Bridges, and K. Mendoza Floor Effects Associated With Universal Screening and Their Impact on the Early Identification of Reading Disabilities J Learn Disabil, March 1, 2009; 42(2): 163 - 176. [Abstract] [PDF]

				H. W. Catts, M. S. Bridges, T. D. Little, and J. B. Tomblin Reading Achievement Growth in Children With Language Impairments J Speech Lang Hear Res, December 1, 2008; 51(6): 1569 - 1579. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				P. L. Morgan, G. Farkas, P. A. Tufis, and R. A. Sperling Are Reading and Behavior Problems Risk Factors for Each Other? J Learn Disabil, September 1, 2008; 41(5): 417 - 436. [Abstract] [PDF]

				A. Puolakanaho, T. Ahonen, M. Aro, K. Eklund, P. H. T. Leppanen, A.-M. Poikkeus, A. Tolvanen, M. Torppa, and H. Lyytinen Developmental Links of Very Early Phonological and Language Skills to Second Grade Reading Outcomes: Strong to Accuracy but Only Minor to Fluency J Learn Disabil, July 1, 2008; 41(4): 353 - 370. [Abstract] [PDF]

				C. M. Schuele and D. Boudreau Phonological Awareness Intervention: Beyond the Basics Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch, January 1, 2008; 39(1): 3 - 20. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. E. Kummerer, N. A. Lopez-Reyna, and M. T. Hughes Mexican Immigrant Mothers' Perceptions of Their Children's Communication Disabilities, Emergent Literacy Development, and Speech-Language Therapy Program Am J Speech Lang Pathol, August 1, 2007; 16(3): 271 - 282. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				B. Culatta, K. Hall, D. Kovarsky, and G. Theadore Contextualized Approach to Language and Literacy (Project CALL): Capitalizing on Varied Activities and Contexts to Teach Early Literacy Skills Communication Disorders Quarterly, August 1, 2007; 28(4): 216 - 235. [Abstract] [PDF]

				M. A. R. Gijsel, A. M. T. Bosman, and L. Verhoeven Kindergarten Risk Factors, Cognitive Factors, and Teacher Judgments as Predictors of Early Reading in Dutch J Learn Disabil, December 1, 2006; 39(6): 558 - 571. [Abstract] [PDF]

				Z. Simkin and G. Conti-Ramsden Evidence of reading difficulty in subgroups of children with specific language impairment Child Language Teaching and Therapy, October 1, 2006; 22(3): 315 - 331. [Abstract] [PDF]

				E. D. Pena, T. J. Spaulding, and E. Plante The Composition of Normative Groups and Diagnostic Decision Making: Shooting Ourselves in the Foot Am J Speech Lang Pathol, August 1, 2006; 15(3): 247 - 254. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C. M. Connor and H. K. Craig African American Preschoolers' Language, Emergent Literacy Skills, and Use of African American English: A Complex Relation J Speech Lang Hear Res, August 1, 2006; 49(4): 771 - 792. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C. Williams Teacher judgements of the language skills of children in the early years of schooling Child Language Teaching and Therapy, June 1, 2006; 22(2): 135 - 154. [Abstract] [PDF]

				S. E. Kummerer and N. A. Lopez-Reyna The Role of Mexican Immigrant Mothers' Beliefs on Parental Involvement in Speech--Language Therapy Communication Disorders Quarterly, January 1, 2006; 27(2): 83 - 94. [Abstract] [PDF]

				A. E. Lafferty, S. Gray, and M. J. Wilcox Teaching alphabetic knowledge to pre-school children with developmental language delay and with typical language development Child Language Teaching and Therapy, October 1, 2005; 21(3): 263 - 277. [Abstract] [PDF]

				K. Strattman and B. W. Hodson Variables that influence decoding and spelling in beginning readers Child Language Teaching and Therapy, June 1, 2005; 21(2): 165 - 190. [Abstract] [PDF]

				K. D. Swain, M. Friehe, and J. M. Harrington Teaching Listening Strategies in the Inclusive Classroom Intervention in School and Clinic, September 1, 2004; 40(1): 48 - 54. [Abstract] [PDF]

				K. D. Ritchey and D. L. Speece Early Identification of Reading Disabilities: Current Status and New Directions Assessment for Effective Intervention, January 1, 2004; 29(4): 13 - 24. [Abstract] [PDF]

				P. C. Pullen and L. M. Justice Enhancing Phonological Awareness, Print Awareness, and Oral Language Skills in Preschool Children Intervention in School and Clinic, November 1, 2003; 39(2): 87 - 98. [Abstract] [PDF]

				H. W. Catts, T. P. Hogan, and M. E. Fey Subgrouping Poor Readers on the Basis of Individual Differences in Reading-Related Abilities J Learn Disabil, March 1, 2003; 36(2): 151 - 164. [Abstract] [PDF]

				L. M. Justice and P. C. Pullen Promising Interventions for Promoting Emergent Literacy Skills: Three Evidence-Based Approaches Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, January 1, 2003; 23(3): 99 - 113. [Abstract] [PDF]

				D. D. Hammill, N. Mather, E. A. Allen, and R. Roberts Using Semantics, Grammar, Phonology, and Rapid Naming Tasks to Predict Word Identification J Learn Disabil, March 1, 2002; 35(2): 121 - 136. [Abstract] [PDF]